This was a really sold book about the city of Carthage and the empire it built. The author is clearly some kind of expert on Carthaginian religion, and specifically the cult of Heracles-Melqart, which comes through many portions of this book, being brought up in early times and again in Hannibal's propaganda. I think the book could be improved by better depth of characters, as referring to "Hanno" and "Scipio" and "Hamilcar" could be referring to several different people, making it different to follow. The book focuses too much on events and not enough on individuals. But with that caveat, the book is very strong in its carefully weighed analysis of the historical record and its clarity in why we should not be willing to believe certain sources without reservation.
Carthage's roots are found in the Phoenician city of Tyre, as it was Tyrians who first settled Carthage. The earliest occupation layers discovered by archaeologists are from 760 BC, but most believe that the founding date would have been further back. In the seventh century BC, Tyre faced serious difficulties that played to the advantage of Carthaginians and other Phoenician settlers in the west. While Tyre had to deal with the Assyrian Empire, the western Phoenicians had fewer large states to contend with. And while the metropole was distracted, the colonies thrived. Based on the large cemeteries that ringed the ancient city, scholars believe that Carthage maintained a population of 30,000 people by the beginning of the seventh century. Early Carthage practiced ceremonial burials with open casket viewings, and also likely practiced child sacrifice at some times in its early history, based on areas called "tophets," where archaeologists find huge repositories of children's bones, mostly babies.
Carthage expanded first into Sardinia, where it defeated more primitive Nuragians to solidify its hold on the island. However, Greeks in Sicily and southern Italy as well as Etruscans and a small people called the Romans in central Italy gave the Carthaginians trouble. The first recorded treaty between the Carthaginians and the Romans dates from 509 BC, forbidding Romans from travelling into Carthaginian territory unless severely restricted, with Carthage swearing not to harm Roman cities on the coast and not to build any forts on the Latin coast. But Carthage ended up in frequent warfare most often with the Greeks in Sicily, especially the Greek state of Syracuse. I would get into the details but they are very confusing, especially because all the most important people in Carthaginian history are named Hamilcar, Hannibal, Bomilcar, Hasdrubal, and other similar or the same names (this is honestly insane; I think the author should have taken it onto himself to come up with some nicknames or something because I just could not follow). Basically, Carthage held onto western Sicily while Greeks controlled cities in the east. Carthage eventually kept a standing army on Sicily, which was a huge money pit, especially in a war with Corinth, the Greek city whose people founded Syracuse, in the 340s. In that struggle, Carthage suffered its greatest military defeat, losing 15,000 troops captured and 10,000 killed, including the heart of the young aristocrats that made up the elite Sacred Band. In 310, Agathocles, leader of Syracuse, nearly destroyed Carthage, but just barely failed thanks to other wars distracting him. The Carthaginians were not a dominant force by any means, but their wars led to development of their state.
Due to frequent wars in Sicily, Carthage began to mint coins to pay mercenaries in the fifth century. Also in the fifth century, Carthage reduced the power of the Magonids, the dynasty that had ruled over the city and its empire for seventy years, from 550 BC to 480. After 480, Carthage vested political power in a Tribunal of One Hundred and Four, made up of aristocrats who oversaw the conduct of officials and the military. The Council of Elders, which had already existed, was granted more power to act over the treasury and foreign policy. And new members of the bureaucracy were appointed, including two annually elected senior executive officers (like the Roman consuls), and other commissioners.
In the mid-4th century, Rome and Carthage had peaceful relations, with Carthage sending an embassy to Rome in 351 and the two signing a treaty in 348, affording merchants of each empire rights and privileges abroad, and governing other commercial relations, which the author believes were part of a thriving trade. But by the time of the Pyrrhic War (280-275), relations frayed. When Pyrrhus of Epirus invaded Italy, Rome rejected Carthaginian aid, suggesting distrust between the two just eleven years before the start of the First Punic War (264-241).
The First Punic War
The immediate trigger of the First Punic War was the group called Mamertines, mercenaries who had occupied the city of Messana (now Messina) in Sicily from 289. Under pressure from Greek Syracuse, the Mamertines appealed to both Rome and Carthage for aid. Carthage acted quickly, came to the Mamertines' aid, and stopped Syracuse from attacking. Carthage then garrisoned a force in the city, partially integrating it into their empire. Rome debated whether to aid Messana, and by the time Carthage had garrisoned a force in the city, Rome's involvement would be interpreted as aggressive by Carthage. But Rome chose to act to get a foothold in Sicily, landing tens of thousands of men on the island in 264-63. The Romans did not attack Messana initially, rather, they focused on taking Greek cities on the island such as Syracuse, thereby gaining a strong foothold on the island.
Critically, in those early years the incredibly strong Carthaginian navy failed in its duty to prevent Rome from landing on the island. The Carthaginian navy at the time was dominated by quinqueremes, mass produced ships with five banks of oars which had every plank marked with a letter for easy assembly. But Rome identified its weak navy as a problem, and by 260, four years into the war, Rome had built a fleet of 100 quinqueremes and 20 triremes, responding to Carthaginian raids from bases in Sardinia. Roman corvi served as equalizers in naval battles. The corvi were these massive ladder-like structures on Roman ships with teeth on the end and attached to pulleys so that Romans could get close to Carthaginian ships and drop them for easy boarding. This game Romans a huge new advantage. While the Carthaginians were successful in hit-and-run battles on land, their navy underachieved at sea, suffering defeats near the Aeolian Islands, Malta, and Cape Tyndaris.
Carthage sued for peace in 241, agreeing to harsh terms. Carthage had to evacuate the entirety of Sicily, free all Roman prisoners, pay a ransom for their own, and deliver a massive indemnity over a period of twenty years. Carthage was only allowed to keep Sardinia. Carthage lost the First Punic War by having its stamina exhausted. It is no easy feat to fight over twenty years of war with Rome, and Rome offered no respite, which Carthage had gotten during its earlier Sicilian wars. The Syracusans had been willing to let a stand-off simmer, but the Romans were uncompromising, expansionist, and aggressive, demanding nothing less than total Carthaginian defeat and retreat from Sicily, a war aim that they won in 241.
Second Punic War
In the wake of his defeat as primary general of the Carthaginians in Sicily in the First Punic War, Hamilcar Barca refused to participate in negotiations with the Romans, which preserved his reputation, and set off for Spain in 237. There, Hamilcar escaped Carthaginian civilian control of the military by recruiting and paying his own troops, and sweetening the deal for Carthage by conquering Spanish tribes and sending silver back to Carthage to pay off its war debts. After Hamilcar died in 228, his son-in-law, Hasdrubal took control in Iberia, and founded a city called New Carthage (modern Cartagena) on about the midpoint of the Spanish Mediterranean coast, complete with a good harbor, prime location of fishing and trade, and quick trade route to the interior for silver. The Barcids increasingly saw Iberia as their personal fief, rebuffing interference from Carthage itself as New Carthage became richer than the old. But Hasdrubal was assassinated in 221, and succeeded by Hannibal, the scourge of Rome, and just 26 years old.
In 219 BC, Hannibal attacked the Roman ally of Saguntum on the northern Mediterranean coast of Spain, and in 218 Rome declared war on Carthage. By this time, Carthage had a much weaker navy than Rome, which controlled the western Mediterranean. So it was really not so crazy for Hannibal to attack over land. However, what was unexpected was that Hannibal would completely avoid Massalia (Marseilles) and instead cross the Rhone upriver and travel through the Alps to the Po Valley. Along the way, Hannibal and his forces dealt with attacks from Gauls, difficult weather, and nearly impossible terrain, but by 217, Hannibal had crossed the Alps and defeated Rome in a decisive victory at Lake Trasimene. The Romans reacted by making Fabius dictator, who pursued the successful but unpopular "Fabian strategy" of remaining in high, defensible positions and not allowing his forces to engage in battle with Hannibal. The strategy worked for a time, but Rome got impatient and elected two new consuls, Varro and Paullus.
Varro and Paullus were a terrible team that blundered almost immediately. They led an army of 87,000 against Hannibal's 50,000, but they could not lead it. On campaign, they alternated command each day and strongly disagreed about how to fight Hannibal. While Paullus wanted to maintain the Fabian strategy, Varro wanted to attack Hannibal immediately. Varro was successful in managing to attack Hannibal, and led Rome into its worst defeat in battle in history at Cannae. Cannae was a disaster for Rome because of an unorthodox plan by Hannibal to place his weakest troops in front of the center of his line and his strongest troops at the flanks with his cavalry. The weaker troops buckled and were pushed back, but this created a U-shape that enveloped the Roman forces, and once Hannibal's cavalry beat the Roman cavalry, they came around the back and the Romans were surrounded, and spent a hot August day being slaughtered in the sun. 70,000 were killed and 10,000 were captured.
After Cannae, many wonder why Hannibal didn't attack Rome. The first was his war aim. Hannibal was not fighting a war to wipe Rome off the map, and he wasn't prepared to do so. He just wanted to exact a favorable victory with brutal conditions like Rome had done to Carthage in the First Punic War. Second, since he didn't have that plan, Hannibal was unready, with too few troops, too little time, and not enough siege engines to attack Rome's formidable walls. And additionally, after Cannae, Hannibal was still 400 kilometers from Rome and his troops were tired from the campaigning of the summer. But while Hannibal expected to be able to dictate the terms of peace at this point, Rome refused to negotiate. Hannibal continued the war in southern Italy (Magna Graecia) with some success, turning Capua and some smaller cities to his side. However, because of the rivalries between these cities, Hannibal's success in turning Capua to his side turned Capua's rivals against him. He was unable to completely control the southern peninsula. Worse, his agreement with Capua absolved the city of the need to send him troops, and the lack of manpower hurt him in the years after Cannae. Hannibal's brother, Hasdrubal, was killed and his army destroyed by the Romans on his way to reinforce Hannibal, leaving the great general stranged.
Even more problematic for Carthage was that while Hannibal marched around Campania and Magna Graecia, the Scipio brothers had marched Roman forces into Spain, where they had tied up three Carthaginian armies by 212. Carthage was able to make a treaty with Philip of Macedon to try to tie down Roman forces in Illyria, but Rome made diplomatic agreements with other Greek powers to do their fighting in Greece for them. Hannibal did eventually march to Rome, but turned around for unknown reasons, possibly a hailstorm (a bad omen). But in 209, one of the Scipionae clan besieged and took New Carthage in Spain, a massive defeat since it enabled the Romans to recruit from Spain and use the silver supply and mint there to pay more soldiers. Scipio also won a decisive battle against Hannibal's brother, Mago, in Spain, who then tried to reach Italy to aid Hannibal, but remained stranded in Liguria, unable to pass Roman forces blocking the way down the peninsula.
Scipio then invaded Africa, in 204, and demanded that Carthage withdraw Hannibal from Italy, which they did. This created a fragile truce that was broken when some Carthaginians looted some Roman supply vessels driven ashore by a storm. Hannibal met Scipio inland at Zama, where Scipio defeated Hannibal by carefully parting his infantry so that Hannibal's war elephants would pass through and behind them, and with unusually strong cavalry, Scipio won the day and marched to Carthage, where Hannibal advised the city to accept defeat. The treaty was harsh, and forbade Carthage from fighting any wars outside Africa, and to ask for permission from Rome to fight wars within Africa. The treaty demanded 26,000 kilograms of silver, ten times the amount from the treaty that ended the First Punic War, and Carthage was forced to hand over all its war elephants and reduce its fleet to just ten war ships.
After the war, Hannibal became a populist politician, trying to force the wealthy to pay their taxes and to audit public finances. But this earned him the enmity of Carthaginian elites, and he was forced from the city. He went to Antioch to the court of the Seleucid Emperor, where he advocated for attacks on the Italian peninsula, and he even led the left wing of a Seleucid fleet against the Romans off the Anatolian coast. But the Seleucids lost that war, and Hannibal ended up going to Bithynia. But the court of King Pruisas of Bithynia was visited by a Roman general in 183, who, once he found out about Hannibal's presence, demanded that the king hand him over. With Bithynian agents surrounding him, Hannibal drank from the vial of poison he always kept with him and died.
The Last Days of Carthage
By the 180s BC, Carthage seems to have been surprisingly prosperous again. Freed from expenditures on their military, Carthage even offered to settle their entire indemnity to Rome forty years early, which Rome refused. But after years of prosperity, Carthaginians attacked Massinissa, the Numidian king, breaking their treaty with Rome, and Romans landed in Africa in 149 BC, starting the Third Punic War. In reality, the war was an excuse for aggressive Romans to destroy their enemy once and for all, since they thought Carthage was growing strong enough to be a threat again.
They demanded 300 hostages from the children of Carthage's elites before beginning negotiations and then, with 80,000 infantry and 4,000 horse landed at Utica, the Romans demanded that Carthage give over all their weapons and war machines, which they did. Finally, the Romans demanded the destruction of the entire city and that it be moved 16 kilometers inland. AT this point, Carthage refused, and entered into a three-year siege before being ultimately defeated.
With Carthage destroyed (and Corinth taken in the same year, 146 BC), Rome was the undisputed master of the Mediterranean world. But with its prominence came major changes, and within a century of Carthage's destruction, Rome was on an unstoppable path towards the end of the republic and the beginning of Augustus's empire. Augustus decided to rebuild Carthage in 29 BC, destroying much of the old city in the process. But nevertheless, the city was rebuilt, this time as a far more Romanized city, although many of its citizens continued to speak Punic until long after the Western Empire was gone, into the 7th century AD.
Miscellaneous Facts:
- From at least the seventh century BC, Carthaginians were associating the Greek Heracles with their Tyrian god, Melqart, kind of combining the two.
- Elephants were introduced to classical Western warfare when Alexander went to India, finding out that Indians used war elephants. They were successful in warfare, however the forest elephants from North Africa were slightly smaller than Asian and bush African elephants (2.5 meters versus 3 meters) and also harder to control in battle.
- Hannibal tried to turn Romans against Fabius by burning the entire countryside except for Fabius's holdings, with the goal of making Romans think Fabius had worked out some kind of deal with Hannibal.
- Side note: calling a society "complex" is the anthropologist's/historian's version of a real estate agent calling a house "charming." Absolutely meaningless term that can be applied to any human society. I have never seen a society called simple unironically in a book published in modern times.
- When Septimium Severus, the first African Roman emperor, took power in 183 AD, he reburied Hannibal's remains in a mausoleum of fine white marble.
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